CupWindow

Bahrain

2005-04-05T17:20:00.000-07:00

Officially State of Bahrain, Arabic Dawlat Al-Bahrayn small Arab state in the Persian Gulf. It is an archipelago consisting of Bahrain Island—extending about 30 miles (50 km) from north to south and 10 miles (16 km) from east to west—and some 30 smaller islands. Its Arabic name means “two seas.” Bahrain is situated in a bay on the southwestern coast of the Persian Gulf; Saudi Arabia lies to the west across the Gulf of Bahrain, while the Qatar peninsula

Perec, Georges

2005-04-04T20:18:00.000-07:00

Perec was orphaned at an early age: his father was killed in action in World War II, and his mother died in a concentration camp. He was reared by an aunt and uncle and eventually attended the Sorbonne for several years. His best-selling first novel, Les Choses: une

Heilbrun, Carolyn

2005-04-04T06:44:00.000-07:00

Heilbrun attended Wellesley (Massachusetts) College (B.A., 1947) and Columbia University in New York City (M.A., 1951; Ph.D., 1959) and in 1960 joined the faculty of Columbia, where she taught until 1992. Among her scholarly

Antarctica, Climate

2005-04-03T20:20:00.000-07:00

Morton J. Rubin (ed.), Studies in Antarctic Meteorology (1966); S. Orvig (ed.), Climates of the Polar Regions (1970); W.S. Weyant, The Antarctic Atmosphere: Climatology of the Surface Environment (1967); and W. Schwerdtfeger, Weather and Climate of the Antarctic (1984), include topical studies and a few general review articles.

Tsvet, Mikhail Semyonovich

2005-04-03T01:38:00.000-08:00

Tsvet studied in Geneva, Switz., receiving his doctorate in 1896, and in 1901 he received a degree from the

Quaker Foods And Beverages

2005-04-02T14:10:00.000-08:00

The Quaker Oats trademark was registered in 1877 by Henry Parsons Crowell (1855–1944), an Ohio milling company owner who in 1891 joined with two other millers, Robert Stuart and

Cartilage

2005-04-01T06:14:00.000-08:00

Dense connective tissue forming the skeleton of mammalian embryos before bone formation begins and persisting in parts of the human skeleton into adulthood. Cartilage is the only component of the skeletons of certain primitive vertebrates, including lampreys and sharks. It is composed of a dense network of collagen fibres embedded in a firm, gelatinous ground

Xiangkhoang Plateau

2005-03-31T21:16:00.000-08:00

French Plateau de Xiangkhoang , formerly Plateau du Tranninh , English Tran Ninh Plateau dissected upland of complex geologic structure in north-central Laos. The plateau constitutes a western extension of the northern Annamite Chain; it is drained principally by the Ngum and Ngiap (Nhiêp) rivers to the south and the Khan River to the north, all of which are Mekong River tributaries. Once the upland's limestone and sandstone hills were covered with tropical

Cantus Firmus

2005-03-31T10:27:00.000-08:00

Plural Cantus Firmi, preexistent melody, such as a plainchant excerpt, underlying a polyphonic musical composition (one consisting of several independent voices or parts). The 11th- and 12th-century organum added a simple second melody (duplum) to an existing plainchant melody (the vox principalis, or principal voice), which by the end of the 12th century was stretched so as to accommodate a melody.

Pereira

2005-03-30T15:38:00.000-08:00

City, capital of Risaralda departamento, west-central Colombia. It is situated in the western foothills of the Cordillera Central above the Cauca River valley. It was founded in 1863 on the former site of Cartago by Remigio Antonio Cañarte and was named for Francisco Pereira Gamba, who donated lands for the enterprise. Pereira serves as a centre for coffee and cattle and

Constitutional Convention

2005-03-29T19:05:00.000-08:00

(1787), in U.S. history, convention that drew up the Constitution of the United States. Stimulated by severe economic troubles, which produced radical political movements such as Shays's Rebellion, and urged on by a demand for a stronger central government, the convention met in the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia (May 25–Sept. 17, 1787), ostensibly to amend the Articles of Confederation.

Roberts, Isaac

2005-03-29T02:05:00.000-08:00

In 1883 Roberts began experimenting with astronomical photography, taking pictures of stars, the Orion and Andromeda nebulae, and the Pleiades cluster. Although the photographs proved difficult to interpret, they were revealing.

Farm Building

2005-03-27T08:40:00.000-08:00

The basic unit of commercial agricultural operation, throughout history and worldwide, is the farm. Because farming systems differ widely, there are important variations in the nature and arrangements of farm facilities.

Wilkes, John

2005-03-27T02:46:00.000-08:00

A profligate by nature, Wilkes became a member of the congenial

Price Discrimination

2005-03-25T22:07:00.000-08:00

Practice of selling a commodity at different prices to different buyers, even though sales costs are the same in all of the transactions. Discrimination among buyers may be based on personal characteristics such as income, race, or age or on geographic location. For price discrimination to succeed, other entrepreneurs must be unable to purchase goods at the lower

Schäuffelein, Hans Leonhard

2005-03-25T20:11:00.000-08:00

In 1509 Schäuffelein worked in the Tirol and later in Bavaria. There he painted the altarpiece for the Benedictine abbey

Race

2005-03-25T01:15:00.000-08:00

Anthropometric measurements did not provide any data to prove group superiority or inferiority. As various fields of study emerged in the late 19th century, some scholars began to focus on mental traits as a means to examine and describe human differences. Psychology as a growing field began developing its own programmatic interests in discovering race

Arp, Halton Christian

2005-03-24T23:02:00.000-08:00

Arp received a bachelor's degree from Harvard University in 1949 and a Ph.D. from the California Institute of Technology in 1953. He subsequently accepted a research fellowship to conduct postdoctoral studies at the nearby Hale Observatories

Game Theory

2005-03-23T16:07:00.000-08:00

Branch of applied mathematics fashioned to analyze certain situations in which there is an interplay between parties that may have similar, opposed, or mixed interests. In a typical game, decision-making “players,” who each have their own goals, try to outsmart one another by anticipating each other's decisions; the game is finally resolved as a consequence of the players'

Porphyry

2005-03-23T01:40:00.000-08:00

Original name Malchus Neoplatonist Greek philosopher, important both as an editor and as a biographer of the philosopher Plotinus and for his commentary on Aristotle's Categories, which set the stage for medieval developments of logic and the problem of universals. Boethius' Latin translation of the introduction (Isagoge) became

Thompson Submachine Gun

2005-03-22T17:51:00.000-08:00

Byname Tommy Gun, submachine gun patented in 1920 by its American designer, General John T. Thompson. The weapon became famous during the U.S. Prohibition era (1920–33) as the gun used by gangsters. Indeed it became so widely known in that era that it is commonly (but erroneously) believed to be the first submachine gun. It weighed almost 10 pounds (4.5 kg) empty and fired .45-calibre ammunition. The magazine was either

Henry Vii

2005-03-22T17:25:00.000-08:00

Also called (1457–85) Henry Tudor, Earl Of Richmond king of England (1485–1509), who succeeded in ending the Wars of the Roses between the houses of Lancaster and York and founded the Tudor dynasty.

Telescope, X-ray telescopes

2005-03-22T05:25:00.000-08:00

The X-ray telescope is used to examine the shorter-wavelength region of the electromagnetic spectrum adjacent to the ultraviolet region. The design of this type of telescope must be radically different from that of a conventional reflector. Since X-ray photons have so much energy, they would pass right through the mirror of a standard reflector. X rays must be bounced

Radiation-damage Dating

2005-03-20T19:40:00.000-08:00

Method of age determination that makes use of the damage to crystals and the radiation from radioactive substances caused by storage of energy in electron traps. In the mineral zircon, for example, radiation damage results in a change in colour, the storage of energy in electron traps, and a change in the crystallographic constants of the mineral. Extensive damage

Vance, Cyrus

2005-03-20T06:34:00.000-08:00

Vance received his bachelor's degree from Yale University in 1939. Following graduation from the Yale law school in 1942, he enlisted in the navy and served until 1946, after which he joined a Wall

Ducommun, élie

2005-03-19T13:21:00.000-08:00

After working as a magazine and newspaper editor in Geneva and Bern, Ducommun spent most of his career as general secretary of the Jura-Simplon Railway. His spare time, however, was spent on peace activities. He took an active part in the movement for European

Performing Arts, World Dance

2005-03-18T10:50:00.000-08:00

Popular folk dance troupes from the former Soviet Union toured the United States and Europe in 2002 and showed that they had lost none of their verve or attraction. Remarkably, the companies were headed by legendary figures active into their 90s. The Moiseyev Dance Company was created in 1937 by choreographer Igor Moiseyev, and in 2002, aged 95, he was still involved with the company.

Romanus Iii Argyrus

2005-03-18T08:19:00.000-08:00

He was an undistinguished Byzantine patrician, who was compelled by the dying emperor, Constantine VIII, to marry his daughter Zoe and to become his successor. Romanus showed great eagerness to make his mark as a ruler but was mostly unfortunate in his enterprises; and in his endeavour to relieve the pressure of taxation he disorganized

Chandler, Raymond

2005-03-17T20:22:00.000-08:00

From 1896 to 1912 Chandler lived in England with his mother, a British subject of Irish birth. Although he was an American

Cone-headed Grasshopper

2005-03-17T16:35:00.000-08:00

Each species has a characteristic

Ibi

2005-03-17T04:31:00.000-08:00

Town and river port, Taraba state, east-central Nigeria, on the south bank of the Benue River, opposite the mouth of the Shemankar River. Founded in the 1850s by a slave of Hamman, the Fulani emir of Muri (to the northeast), it became a post for slave traders from Muri, known as the bayin Fulani. In the late 19th century British merchants of the Royal Niger Company observed Ibi's Hausa

Insurance, England

2005-03-16T19:45:00.000-08:00

Fire insurance arose much later, obtaining impetus from the Great Fire of London in 1666. A number of insurance companies were started in England after 1711, during the so-called bubble era. Many of them were fraudulent, get-rich-quick schemes concerned mainly with selling their securities to the public. Nevertheless, two important and successful English insurance companies

Turbot

2005-03-15T10:17:00.000-08:00

(Scophthalmus maximus), broad-bodied European flatfish of the family Scophthalmidae or, in some classifications, Bothidae. A highly valued food fish, the turbot lives along sand and gravel shores. It is a left-sided flatfish, with its eyes normally on the left side of the head, and it is scaleless, though its head and body are studded with numerous bony knobs, or tubercles.

Madhyamika

2005-03-15T04:33:00.000-08:00

(Sanskrit: “Intermediate”), important school in the Mahayana (“Great Vehicle”) Buddhist tradition. Its name derives from its having sought a middle position between the realism of the Sarvastivada (“Doctrine That All Is Real”) school and the idealism of the Yogacara (“Mind Only”) school. The most renowned Madhyamika thinker was Nagarjuna (2nd century AD), who developed the doctrine that all

Cyril Of Alexandria, Saint

2005-03-14T14:03:00.000-08:00

He succeeded his uncle Theophilus

Celestial Mechanics

2005-03-14T03:43:00.000-08:00

In the broadest sense, the application of classical mechanics to the motion of celestial bodies acted on by any of several types of forces. By far the most important force experienced by these bodies, and much of the time the only important force, is that of their mutual gravitational attraction. But other forces can be important as well, such as atmospheric drag on

Staines

2005-03-14T01:51:00.000-08:00

Town in Spelthorne borough, administrative county of Surrey, historic county of Middlesex, England, on the left bank of the River Thames. A residential community on the western fringe of Greater London, Staines marks a crossing of the Thames used since Roman times by the major road from London to the southwest of Britain. Nearby are large reservoirs where Thames water

Tudor, Antony

2005-03-13T23:14:00.000-08:00

He began his dance studies at 19 years of age with Marie Rambert and for her company choreographed his first ballet, Cross-Gartered (1931), based on an incident in Shakespeare's Twelfth Night. In 1938 he founded his own company,

Philetaerus

2005-03-11T20:02:00.000-08:00

Philetaerus initiated the policies that made Pergamum a leading centre of Greek civilization in the East. He served under Antigonus I Monophthalmus, successor to Alexander

Clemens, Jacobus

2005-03-11T09:35:00.000-08:00

In 1544 he was probationary choirmaster of Saint-Donatien in Brugge (Bruges) and in 1550 was singer

Adwa

2005-03-10T06:00:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Adowa , Italian Adua town, northern Ethiopia. Adwa lies on the east-west highway between Aksum and Adi Grat at its junction with the road north to Asmara (Asmera), in Eritrea. Adwa is a market centre (grains, honey, hides, coffee) for the Tigray people. The town is located 10 miles (16 km) west of an area of fantastic volcanic formations. On March 1, 1896, Emperor Menilek II defeated an Italian force there. Nearby

Wild Mango

2005-03-10T04:31:00.000-08:00

Also called Dika (Irvingia gabonensis), tropical African tree, of the family Ixonanthaceae (Irvingiaceae), notable for its edible yellow fruit, which somewhat resembles the mango. The seed is rich in a fat used locally to make both bread and a type of butter. The wood is very hard and is used locally in building construction.

Mountain, Mechanisms that support elevated terrains

2005-03-09T20:18:00.000-08:00

In terms of strength, the lithosphere, the thickness of which varies over the face of the

La Fontaine, Jean De

2005-03-09T11:21:00.000-08:00

Biographical and critical studies include Marie-Odile Sweetser, La Fontaine (1987); Agnes Ethel Mackay, La Fontaine and His Friends: A Biography (1972); John C. Lapp, The Esthetics of Negligence: La Fontaine's Contes (1971); and Richard Danner, Patterns of Irony in the Fables of La Fontaine (1985).

Alliance

2005-03-09T00:23:00.000-08:00

In international relations, a formal agreement between two or more states for mutual support in case of war. Contemporary alliances provide for combined action on the part of two or more independent states and are generally defensive in nature, obligating allies to join forces if one or more of them is attacked by another state or coalition. Although alliances

Augustine, Saint

2005-03-07T17:21:00.000-08:00

Two of Augustine's works stand out above the others for their lasting influence, but they have had very different fates. City of God was widely read in Augustine's time and throughout the Middle Ages and still demands attention today, but it is impossible to read without a determined effort to place it in its historical context. The Confessions was not much read in the

Obscene Publications Act

2005-03-07T15:54:00.000-08:00

In British law, either of two codifications of prohibitions against obscene literature adopted in 1857 and in much revised form in 1959. The earlier act, also called Lord Campbell's Act (one of several laws named after chief justice and chancellor John Campbell, 1st Baron Campbell), not only outlawed obscene publications but empowered police to search premises on which obscene

Henderson, Arthur

2005-03-07T04:00:00.000-08:00

An iron molder at Robert Stephenson's locomotive works and foundry in Newcastle upon Tyne, Northumberland, Henderson became secretary of the Newcastle local of the

Yung-lo

2005-03-06T23:59:00.000-08:00

In the early years of his reign, he seems to have been fascinated by the regions beyond China's southern borders, perhaps in part because of rumours that the emperor Chu Yün-wen had escaped overseas. In 1403 the Yung-lo emperor sent out three fleets under eunuch commanders to proclaim his accession throughout Southeast Asia as far as Java and southern India. More vigorously

Bloch, Konrad E.

2005-03-06T00:34:00.000-08:00

After receiving a chemical engineering degree in 1934 at the Technische Hochschule in Munich,

Skeat, Walter William

2005-03-05T13:30:00.000-08:00

Following a classical education at Christ's College, Cambridge, Skeat in 1891 joined the civil service of the state of Selangor in the Malay Peninsula. He became interested in ideas of magic

Offenburg

2005-03-05T09:12:00.000-08:00

City, Baden-Württemberg Land (state), southwestern Germany, in the Kinzig River Valley, at the western edge of the Black Forest (Schwarzwald). First mentioned in 1101, it was founded by the Zähringen margraves on the site of a Roman settlement and was an imperial free city from 1289 to 1802. In 1846–49 it was a centre of the revolutionary movement in Baden. Gothic and Baroque buildings and remains

Jussieu, Joseph De

2005-03-04T03:40:00.000-08:00

French botanist who accompanied the French physicist Charles-Marie de la Condamine's expedition to Peru to measure an arc of meridian. He remained in South America for 35 years, returning to Paris in 1771. He introduced the common garden heliotrope (Heliotropium peruvianum) into Europe. Joseph was a brother of Antoine and Bernard.

Bar-salibi, Jacob

2005-03-03T21:46:00.000-08:00

A native of Melitene (now Malatya, Turkey), Bar-Salibi was made bishop of Marash in 1154 and, a year later, of Mabbog as well. In 1166 he was transferred to the metropolitan see of Amid (Diyarbakir), where he remained until his death. His works include poems, prayers, homilies, liturgies, a commentary on the six

Furniture, Renaissance and later

2005-03-03T15:15:00.000-08:00

(Italy): George Leland Hunter, Italian Furniture and Interiors, 2 vol. (1918), mostly illustrations; William M. Odom, A History of Italian Furniture from the 4th to the Early 19th Centuries, 2 vol. (1918–19). (Spain): Arthur Byne and Mildred Stapley, Spanish Interiors and Furniture (1921), profusely illustrated with scale drawings and photographs. (Germany): Heinrich Kreisel, Die Kunst des deutschen Möbels, 2 vol. (1968–70), thorough, illustrated history of German furniture. (France): Pierre Verlet, Le Mobilier royal français, 2 vol. (1945–55); Les Meubles français du XVIIIe siecle, 2 vol. (1956), a learned treatise on French furniture. (England and the colonies): Percy Macquoeo and Ralph Edwards, The Dictionary of English Furniture from the Middle Ages to the Late Georgian Period, 2nd ed., 3 vol. (1954), documented survey of English and American furniture; Ralph Fastenedge, English Furniture Styles from 1500 to 1830 (1962), an excellent elementary introduction to the study of English furniture; Anthony Coleridge, Chippendale Furniture (1968), illustrated study of Chippendale and his contemporaries; Clifford Musgrave, Adam and Hepplewhite and Other NeoClassical Furniture (1966), written by one of the best informed students of the Neoclassical English style of furniture; Charles F. Montgomery, American Furniture (1966), a survey of Federal period furniture. See also Berry B. Tracy, The Federal Furniture and Decorative Arts at Boscobel (1981); Charles Santore, The Windsor Style in America (1981); John T. Kirk, American Furniture and the British Tradition to 1830 (1983).

Alternation Of Generations

2005-03-03T14:17:00.000-08:00

In algae, fungi, mosses, ferns, and seed plants, alternation of generations is common; it is not always easy to observe, however, since one or the other of the generations is often

Ionosphere

2005-03-03T06:53:00.000-08:00

Region of the Earth's atmosphere in which the number of ions, or electrically charged particles—resulting from the action of extraterrestrial (primarily solar) radiation on the neutral atoms and molecules of the air—is large enough to affect the propagation of radio waves. The ionosphere begins at a height of about 50 km (30 miles) above the surface but is most distinct

Raedwald

2005-03-02T16:24:00.000-08:00

Raedwald became a Christian during a stay in Kent, but on his return to East Anglia he sanctioned the worship of both the Christian and the heathen religions. For a time he recognized the overlordship of Aethelberht, king of Kent, but he seems to have shaken off the

Beawar

2005-03-01T20:34:00.000-08:00

Town, Rajasthan state, northwestern India. A major rail and road junction, Beawar is an agricultural and woollen market centre. Industries include cotton ginning, handloom weaving, hosiery manufacture, and wood carving. Formerly also called Nayanagar, the town was founded in 1835 and grew rapidly in prosperity because of its advantageous position between Udaipur and Jodhpur.

Johansson, Lars

2005-03-01T10:22:00.000-08:00

Early orphaned, Johansson was reared by an uncle and educated both in Sweden and abroad. He returned to Sweden and became known as a writer of funeral elegies and epithalamiums. His most personal poems are drinking songs and

Lbk Culture

2005-02-28T15:29:00.000-08:00

Formerly Danubian Culture, Neolithic culture that expanded over large areas of Europe north and west of the Danube River (from Slovakia to the Netherlands) about the 5th millennium BC. Farmers probably practiced a form of shifting cultivation on the loess soil. Emmer wheat and barley were grown, and domestic animals, usually cattle, were kept. The name LBK derives from an abbreviation of the German

Gwinnett, Button

2005-02-27T11:43:00.000-08:00

Gwinnett emigrated from England to Georgia

Auch

2005-02-27T07:11:00.000-08:00

Town, capital of Gers département, Midi-Pyrénées région, southwestern France. Auch is built on and around a hill on the west bank of the Gers River, west of Toulouse. The capital of the Celtiberian tribe of Ausci, it became important in Roman Gaul as Elimberris and, after Christianity was established, became the metropolis of Novempopulani. In 732, to protect against Muslim

Gospel Music

2005-02-27T00:54:00.000-08:00

The immediate impetus for gospel music seems to have been the rise of Pentecostal churches

Catherine Of Sweden, Saint

2005-02-26T23:53:00.000-08:00

Catherine was married to Egard Lydersson von Kyren, who died shortly after she left for Rome (1350) to join Bridget as her constant companion. She did not return to Sweden until after Bridget's death in 1373. She took part in the ecclesiastical controversies

Chanel, Gabrielle

2005-02-26T14:13:00.000-08:00

Byname Coco French dress designer who ruled over Parisian haute couture for almost six decades. Her elegantly casual designs inspired women of fashion to abandon complicated, uncomfortable clothes and to adopt her now-classic innovations—i.e., jersey dresses and suits, bell-bottom trousers, bobbed hair, trench coats, turtleneck sweaters, costume jewelry,

World War I

2005-02-25T23:20:00.000-08:00

Dwight E. Lee (ed.), The Outbreak of the First World War: Causes and Responsibilities, 4th ed. (1975), is a good introduction to the debate on the origins of World War I. A more detailed account is provided in Luigi Albertini, The Origins of the War of 1914, 3 vol. (1952–57, reprinted 1980; originally published in Italian, 1942–43). A comprehensive general account of the war is Bernadotte E. Schmitt and Harold C. Vedeler, The World in the Crucible, 1914–1919 (1984). The standard military histories are Basil Henry Liddell Hart, A History of the World War, 1914–1918, enl. ed. (1934, reprinted 1970); Cyril B. Falls, The Great War (1959); and Marc Ferro, The Great War, 1914–1918 (1973, reprinted 1987; originally published in French, 1969). J.E. Edmonds (comp.), A Short History of World War I (1951, reprinted 1968); and John Terraine, The Great War, 1914–1918: A Pictorial History (1965, reprinted 1978), are useful introductions. Naval operations during the war are discussed in Arthur J. Marder, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow: The Royal Navy in the Fisher Era, 1904–1919, 5 vol. (1961–70). International diplomacy during the war is treated in Z.A.B. Zeman, The Gentlemen Negotiators (1971; U.K. title, A Diplomatic History of the First World War).

Kolbe, Hermann

2005-02-25T18:34:00.000-08:00

After studying chemistry with Friedrich Wöhler, Kolbe became an assistant to Robert Bunsen at the University of Marburg in 1842. Subsequently he assisted Lyon Playfair at the

Allen, Stephen Valentine Patrick William

2005-02-25T11:15:00.000-08:00

American entertainer, composer, and author (b. Dec. 26, 1921, New York, N.Y.—d. Oct. 30, 2000, Encino, Calif.), was a prolific, versatile, creative, and influential modern-day renaissance man. Although he could be considered to have made his greatest impact when he created and hosted what became The Tonight Show—the mold for television talk shows—he also composed thousands of songs (his best known:

Mountain

2005-02-24T03:27:00.000-08:00

Mountain belts differ from one another in various respects, but they also have a number of similarities that enable Earth scientists to group them into certain distinct categories. Each of these categories is characterized by the principal process that created a representative belt. Moreover, within individual belts different tectonic processes can prevail

Antagonist

2005-02-23T02:03:00.000-08:00

In literature, the principal opponent or foil of the main character, who is referred to as the protagonist, in a drama or narrative. The word is from the Greek antagnistes, “opponent or rival.”

All-england Championships

2005-02-22T23:45:00.000-08:00

Byname Wimbledon Championships, internationally known lawn tennis championships played annually in London at Wimbledon (q.v.).

Stanley Cup

2005-02-22T13:38:00.000-08:00

Trophy awarded to the winner of the world's professional ice hockey championship, an annual play-off that culminates the season of the National Hockey League. The Stanley Cup was first awarded in the 1893–94 season and is the oldest trophy that can be won by professional athletes in North America. The cup's donor was a governor-general of Canada, Frederick Arthur, Lord Stanley

Andean Peoples

2005-02-22T04:18:00.000-08:00

Studies of the pre-Columbian history and culture of this area may be found in the bibliography of the article pre-Columbian civilizations. The best account of Andean cultures as they appeared to an eyewitness of the early years (16th century) of European rule is Pedro de Cieza de León, The Incas (1959, reissued 1969; originally published in Spanish, 1554). An introduction to Andean archaeology may be found in John Howland Rowe and Dorothy Menzel (eds.), Peruvian Archaeology (1967), with selections mainly by American scholars. The role of irrigation in the cultural and political elaboration of coastal kingdoms is well illustrated in Paul Kosok, Life, Land, and Water in Ancient Peru (1965). Special regional problems are introduced in Louis C. Faron, Mapuche Social Structure (1961), a study of the reintegration of these people of Chile since the time of conquest; L.C. Faron, Hawks of the Sun (1964), on the Southern Andes; Betty J. Meggers, Ecuador (1966); Donald W. Lathrap, The Upper Amazon (1970); Paul T. Baker and Michael A. Little (eds.), Man in the Andes: A Multidisciplinary Study of High-Altitude Quechua (1976); Kevin Kling, Ecuador: Island of the Andes (1988; originally published in French, 1987), focusing on Indian culture and life and illustrated with photographs; and Steve J. Stern, Peru's Indian Peoples and the Challenge of Spanish Conquest: Huamanga to 1640, 2nd ed. (1993).

Gir Forest National Park

2005-02-21T05:20:00.000-08:00

The Gir Forests Reserve, created in 1913 to protect the largest

Hoffmann, Josef

2005-02-20T15:01:00.000-08:00

Hoffman studied under Otto Wagner in Vienna and in 1899 joined in the founding of the Vienna Sezession, which, although influenced by the Art Nouveau movement, was more modernist than Wagner's approach. Beginning

Ringgold, Faith

2005-02-20T06:40:00.000-08:00

Ringgold grew up in New York City's Harlem, and while still in high school she decided to be an artist. She attended City College of New York, where she received B.S. (1955) and M.A. (1959) degrees. In the mid-1950s she began teaching art in New York

Sardinian Language

2005-02-19T18:50:00.000-08:00

Sardinian Sardo Romance language spoken on the Italian-ruled island of Sardinia; it is most similar to Vulgar Latin of all the modern Romance languages. Major dialects of Sardinian are Logudorian, spoken in central Sardinia; Campidanian, spoken in the south; Sassarian, spoken in the northwest; and Gallurian, spoken in the northeast. There is no standard form of Sardinian except the

Interior Design, Institutional interiors

2005-02-19T03:27:00.000-08:00

Schools, hospitals, and universities are examples of institutions now extensively using the services of interior designers and architects. Many universities have staff designers dealing with the institution's many design needs, from office spaces to dormitories. Certain institutional needs, such as operating rooms in hospitals, are strictly functional, yet

Mahendra

2005-02-18T18:28:00.000-08:00

Mahendra ascended the throne in 1955 upon the death of his father, King Tribhuvan. The new king came into conflict with his Cabinet, which was dominated by a coalition of the Nepali Congress Party and the Ranas (a line of hereditary prime ministers). In order to assert his control, Mahendra staged a coup in 1960, dissolving

Eye For An Eye

2005-02-18T09:47:00.000-08:00

In law and custom, the principle of retaliation for injuries or damages. In ancient Babylonian, biblical, Roman, and Islamic law, it was a principle operative in private and familial settlements, intended to limit retaliation, and often satisfied by a money payment or other equivalent. See also talion.

Kyneton

2005-02-17T20:33:00.000-08:00

Town, central Victoria, Australia, on the Campaspe River, about 50 mi (85 km) northwest of Melbourne. Squatters settled in the region in 1836–41; the town was surveyed in 1849 and named after Kineton (now known as Kington) in Hertfordshire, England. Kyneton is the service centre for an area producing wool, beef, dairy products, oats, wheat, and potatoes. There are abattoirs, knitting and timber

Pig Iron

2005-02-17T09:26:00.000-08:00

Crude iron obtained directly from the blast furnace and cast in molds. See cast iron.

Tracheophyte

2005-02-17T02:26:00.000-08:00

Any of the vascular plants, members of the division, or phylum, Tracheophyta, numbering some 260,000 species and including all of the conspicuous flora of the Earth today. Tracheophyte, meaning “tracheid plant,” refers to the water-conducting cells (called tracheids, or tracheary elements) that show spiral bands like those in the walls of the tracheae, or air tubes, of

Vega, Lope De

2005-02-16T09:49:00.000-08:00

Outstanding dramatist of the Spanish Golden Age, author of as many as 1,800 plays and several hundred shorter dramatic pieces, of which 431 plays and 50 shorter pieces are extant.

Devrient, Ludwig

2005-02-16T02:58:00.000-08:00

Born to a family of wholesale drapers,

Icelandic Literature

2005-02-14T21:16:00.000-08:00

Body of writings in Icelandic, including those from Old Icelandic (also called Old Norse) through Modern Icelandic. It is best known for the richness of its classical period, which is equivalent in time to the early and medieval periods in western European literature. See Scandinavian literature; Edda; Icelanders' sagas; saga; skaldic poetry.

Typhoon

2005-02-14T04:05:00.000-08:00

Conceived as a replacement for Hawker Aircraft's Hurricane, the Typhoon was a low-wing monoplane designed to a January 1938 specification. Powered by a liquid-cooled, 24-cylinder, 2,200-horsepower Napier Sabre engine, it first flew in early 1940. Intended to be an interceptor, the Typhoon was the first

Excretion, Amphibians

2005-02-13T21:30:00.000-08:00

Direct evidence for the occurrence of filtration at the glomerulus was first provided by experiments on the amphibian kidney. Although amphibians are formally given the status of terrestrial animals, they are poorly adapted to life on land. They excrete nitrogen in the form of urea and cannot produce urine more concentrated than the blood. Their skins are permeable

Gambier Islands

2005-02-13T08:57:00.000-08:00

French Îles Gambier, also called Mangareva Islands, southeasternmost extension of the Tuamotu Archipelago of French Polynesia in the central South Pacific, nearly 1,000 miles (1,600 km) east-southeast of Tahiti. The principal inhabited group of the Gambiers comprises the volcanic islets Mangareva (Magareva), Taravai, Akamaru, and Aukena. Mangareva, which is 5 miles (8 km) long and encircled by a barrier reef, rises to approximately

Amtrak

2005-02-13T01:05:00.000-08:00

Formally National Railroad Passenger Corporation federally supported corporation that operates nearly all intercity passenger trains in the United States. It was established by Congress in 1970 and assumed control of passenger service from the nation's private rail companies the following year. Virtually all railways, with the exception of a small handful, signed contracts with Amtrak. The corporation pays the

Powell, Maud

2005-02-12T14:57:00.001-08:00

Powell early displayed musical talent and took up the violin. Encouraged especially by her mother, an amateur musician and composer, she studied under teachers in Aurora, Illinois, and in Chicago. At age nine she made a six-week

Graysby

2005-02-12T14:57:00.000-08:00

Species of sea bass (q.v.).

Middlesex

2005-02-11T03:47:00.000-08:00

The River Thames was the key to the history of Middlesex. From about 8000 BCE traders and settlers used the Thames as their waterway. During the Iron Age

Eisenhower, Mamie

2005-02-10T18:17:00.000-08:00

Although she did not change the job of first lady, Mamie Eisenhower was a favourite of many American women, who imitated her youthful style (known as the “Mamie style”) and what her husband called her “unaffected manner.”

Dasa

2005-02-10T16:30:00.000-08:00

Also spelled dasyu member of an aboriginal people in India encountered and embattled by the invading Aryans (c. 1500 BC). They were described by the Aryans as a dark-skinned, harsh-spoken people who worshiped the phallus. This allusion has persuaded many scholars that worship of the linga, the Hindu religious symbol, originated with them; it may, however, have referred to their sexual practices.

Luther, Martin, Luther's questioning of authority

2005-02-10T09:09:00.000-08:00

Eck was able to go off to Rome with new prestige to give sharpness to the process of Luther's official condemnation. Luther had now to examine the further implications of his actions to date, in relation to the authority of the church, of councils, and of Scripture; his correspondence shows that he was reaching something like a crisis in his attitude to papal

Burger, Warren E.

2005-02-09T10:36:00.000-08:00

After graduating with honours from St. Paul (now William Mitchell) College of Law in 1931, Burger joined a prominent St. Paul law firm and gradually became active in Republican Party politics. In 1953 he was appointed an assistant U.S. attorney general, and in 1955 he was nominated by President Dwight D. Eisenhower

Zion

2005-02-08T10:38:00.000-08:00

In the Old Testament, the easternmost of the two hills of ancient Jerusalem. It was the site of the Jebusite city captured by David, king of Israel and Judah, in the 10th century BC (2 Samuel 5:6–9) and established by him as his royal capital. Some scholars believe that the name also belonged to the “stronghold of Zion” taken by David (2 Samuel 5:7), which may have been the fortress of the city. The

Narra

2005-02-08T05:12:00.000-08:00

Also called Asana, any of several timber trees of the genus Pterocarpus of the pea family (Fabaceae or Leguminosae). The name refers especially to P. indicus, or India padauk, or the hard wood, noted for its ability to take a high polish, that is derived from the trees. Narra wood is used for cabinetwork; it is usually red or rose colour, often variegated with yellow, and is hard and heavy. The trunk